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Chemosensor


A chemosensor, also known as chemoreceptor, is a sensory receptor that transduces a chemical signal into an action potential. Or, more generally, a chemosensor detects certain chemical stimuli in the environment.
Contents
1 Classes
2 Systems affected
2.1 Breathing rate
2.2 Heart rate
2.3 Sense organs
3 SAW Chemosensor
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
//
Classes
There are two main classes of the chemosensor: direct and distance.
Examples of distance chemoreceptors are:
olfactory receptor neurons in the olfactory system
neurons in the vomeronasal organ that detect pheromones
Examples of direct chemoreceptors include
taste buds in the gustatory system
carotid bodies and aortic bodies that detect changes in pH and CO2 inside the body.
Systems affected
Breathing rate
Chemoreceptors detect the levels of carbon dioxide in the blood. To do this, they monitor the concentration of hydrogen ions in the blood, which decrease the pH of the blood. This is a direct consequence of an increase in carbon dioxide concentration, because carbon dioxide becomes carbonic acid in an aqueous environment.
The response is that the respiratory centre (in the medulla), sends nervous impulses to the external intercostal muscles and the diaphragm, via the intercostal nerve and the phrenic nerve, respectively, to increase breathing rate and the volume of the lungs during inhalation.
Chemoreceptors which affect breathing rate are broken down into two categories.
central chemoreceptors are located on the ventrolateral surface of medulla oblongata and detect changes in pH of cerebrospinal fluid. They do not respond to a drop in oxygen, and eventually desensitize.
peripheral chemoreceptors: Aortic body detects changes in blood oxygen and carbon dioxide, but not pH, while carotid body detects all three. They do not desensitize. Their effect on breathing rate is less than that of the central chemoreceptors.
Heart rate
Chemoreceptors in the medulla oblongata, carotid arteries and aortic arch, detect the levels of carbon dioxide in the blood, in the same way as applicable in the Breathing Rate section.
In response to this high concentration, a nervous impulse is sent to the cardiovascular centre in the medulla, which will then feedback to the sympathetic ganglia, increasing nervous impulses here, and prompting the sinoatrial node to stimulate more contractions of the myogenic cardiac muscle, increasing heart rate by causing the secretion of nor-adrenaline directly on to the sinoatrial node.
Sense organs
In taste sensation, the tongue is composed of 5 different taste buds: salty, sour, sweet, bitter, and savory. The salty and sour tastes work directly through the ion channels, the sweet and bitter taste work through G protein-coupled receptors, and the savoury sensation is activated by glutamate.
Noses in vertebrates and antennae in many invertebrates act as distance chemoreceptors. Molecules are diffused through the air and bind to specific receptors on olfactory sensory neurons, activating an opening ion channel via G-proteins.
When inputs from the environment are significant to the survival of the organism the input must be detected. As all life processes are ultimately based on chemistry it is natural that detection and passing on of the external input will involve chemical events. The chemistry of the environment is, of course, relevant to survival, and detection of chemical input from the outside may well articulate directly with cell chemicals.
For example: The emissions of a predator's food source, such as odors or pheromones, may be in the air or on a surface where the food source has been. Cells in the head, usually the air passages or mouth, have chemical receptors on their surface that change when in contact with the emissions. The change does not stop there. It passes in either chemical or electrochemical form to the central processor, the brain or spinal cord. The resulting output from the CNS (central nervous system) makes body actions that will engage the food and enhance survival.
SAW Chemosensor
SAW Chemosensor (Surface Acoustic Wave Chemosensor) is used to analyse gases.
See also
Sensory receptor
Molecular sensor
Chemosensory clusters
Diffuse chemosensory system
Solitary chemosensory cells
References
^ Understanding Surface Acoustic Wave (SAW) Devices for Mobile and Wireless
External links
MeSH Chemoreceptors
chemoreceptor at eMedicine Dictionary

v?d?eNervous system: Sensory systems/ senses
Special senses
Visualsystem sight? Auditorysystem hearing? Chemoreception (Olfactorysystem smell? Gustatorysystem taste)
Touch
Pain? Heat? Balance? Mechanoreception(Pressure, vibration, proprioception)
Other
Sensory receptor

v?d?eRespiratory system, physiology: respiratory physiology
Lung volumes
VC FRC Vt dead space CC
calculations: respiratory minute volume FEV1/FVC ratiodevices: spirometry body plethysmography peak flow meter
Airways/ventilation (V)
positive pressure ventilation breath (inhalation, exhalation) respiratory rate respirometer pulmonary surfactant compliance hysteresivity airway resistance bronchial hyperresponsiveness bronchial challenge test bronchoconstriction/bronchodilation
Blood/perfusion (Q)
pulmonary circulation hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction pulmonary shunt
Interactions/ventilation/perfusion ratio (V/Q)
ventilation/perfusion scan zones of the lung gas exchange pulmonary gas pressures alveolar gas equation alveolar-arterial gradient hemoglobin oxygen-haemoglobin dissociation curve (2,3-DPG, Bohr effect, Haldane effect) carbonic anhydrase (chloride shift) oxyhemoglobin respiratory quotient arterial blood gas diffusion capacity (DLCO)
Control of respiration
pons (pneumotaxic center, apneustic center) medulla (dorsal respiratory group, ventral respiratory group) chemoreceptors (central, peripheral) pulmonary stretch receptors (Hering-Breuer reflex)
Insufficiency
high altitude oxygen toxicity hypoxia
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Vortex engine


Energy portal
The concept of a Vortex Engine, independently proposed by Norman Louat and Louis M. Michaud, aims to replace large physical chimneys with a vortex of air created by a shorter, less-expensive structure.

An Australian experimental atmospheric vortex using smoke as the tracer.Geoffrey Wickham
Michaud's patent claims that the main application is that the air flow through the louvers at the base will drive low-speed air turbines (21), generating twenty percent more electric power from the heat normally wasted by conventional power plants. That is, the vortex engine's proposed main application is as a "bottoming cycle" for large power plants that need cooling towers.
The application proposed by Louat in his patent claims is to provide a less-expensive alternative to a physical Solar updraft tower. In this application, the heat is provided by a large area of ground heated by the sun and covered by a transparent surface that traps hot air, in the manner of a Greenhouse. A vortex is created by deflecting vanes set at an angle relative to the tangent of the outer radius of the solar collector. A similar proposal is to eliminate the transparent cover. This scheme would drive the chimney-vortex with warm seawater or warm air from the ambient surface layer of the earth. In this application, the application strongly resembles a Dust devil with an air-turbine in the center.

Conceptual lllustration of a vortex engine by Louis Michaud. Diameter 200 m (660 ft.) or greater
Contents
1 Theory of Operation
2 Criticism and History
3 References
4 External links
//
Theory of Operation
(applicable primarily to the Michaud patent)

Elevation (side) view of an 80 m-wide (260 ft) vortex engine. It's constructed mostly of reinforced concrete. (48) is grade level (the surface of the ground).
In operation, the vortex centripetally expels heavier, colder external air (37), and therefore forms a large, low-pressure chimney of hot air (35). It uses about twenty percent of a power-plant's waste heat to drive its air motion. Depending on weather, a large station may create a virtual chimney from 200 m to 15 km high, efficiently venting waste power plant heat into colder upper atmosphere with minimal structure.
The vortex is begun by briefly turning on a diffuse heater (83) and electrically driving the turbines (21) as fans. This moves mildly heated air into the vortex arena (2). The air must have only a mild temperature difference because large temperature differences increase mixing with cold ambient air and reduce efficiency. The heat might be from flue gases, turbine exhaust or small natural gas heaters.
The air in the arena rises (35). This draws more air (33, 34) through directing louvers (3, 5), which cause a vortex to form (35). In the early stages, external airflow (31) is restricted as little as possible by opening external louvers (25). Most of the heat energy is at first used to start the vortex.
In the next stage of start-up, the heater (83) may be turned off and the turbines (21) by-passed by louvers (25). At this time, low-temperature heat from an external powerplant drives the updraft and vortex via a conventional crossway cooling tower (61).
As the air leaves the louvers (3, 5) more rapidly, the vortex increases in speed. The air's momentum causes centrifugal forces on the air in the vortex, which reduce pressure in the vortex, narrowing it further. Narrowing further increases the vortex speed as conservation of momentum causes it to spin faster. The speed of spin is set by the speed of the air leaving louvers (33, 34) and the width of the arena (2). A wider arena and faster louver speed cause a faster, tighter vortex.
Heated air (33, 34) from the crossway cooling tower (61) enters the concrete vortex arena (2) via two rings of directing louvers (3, 5, height exaggerated for clarity) and rises (35). The upper ring of louvers (5) seals the low-pressure end of the vortex with a thick, relatively high-speed air-curtain (34). This substantially increases the pressure difference between the base of the vortex (33) and the outside air (31). In turn, this increases the efficiency of the power turbines (21).
The lower ring of louvers (3) convey large masses of air (33) almost directly into the low-pressure end of the vortex. The lower ring of louvers (3) are crucial to get high mass flows, because air from them (33) spins more slowly, and thus has lower centripetal forces and a higher pressure at the vortex.
Air-driven turbines (21) in constrictions at the inlet of the cooling tower (61) drive electric motor-generators. The generators begin to function only in the last stages of start-up, as a strong pressure differential forms between the base of the vortex arena (33) and the outside air (31). At this time, the bypass louvers (25) are closed.
The wall (1) and bump (85) retain the base of the vortex (35) in ambient winds by shielding the low-velocity air-motion (33) in the base of the arena, and smoothing turbulent airflow. The height of the wall (1) must be five to thirty times the height of the louvers (3, 5) to retain the vortex in normal wind conditions.
To manage safety and wear of the arena (2), the planned maximum speed of the vortex base (33) is near 3m/s (10ft/s). The resulting vortex should resemble a large, slow dust-devil of water-mist more than a violent tornado. In uninhabited areas, faster speeds might be permitted so the vortex can survive in faster ambient winds.
Most of the unnamed numbered items are a system of internal louvers and water pumps to manage air velocities and heating as the engine starts.
Criticism and History
It is not absolutely clear that this could be made workable (for instance, wind might disrupt the vortex).
Michaud has built a prototype in Utah with colleague Tom Fletcher.
Also, according to Michaud's patent application, the design was initially prototyped with a gasoline-powered 50cm "fire-swirl."
The University of Western Ontario's wind-tunnel laboratory, through a seed investment from OCE's Centre for Energy, is studying the dynamics of a one-metre version of Michaud's vortex engine.
References
^ Louat's International Patent Application is PCT/AU99/00037
^ Michaud's U.S. Patent is US 2004/0112055 A1, "Atmospheric Vortex Engine"
^ Atmospheric Vortex Engine
^ Michaud LM (1999). "Vortex process for capturing mechanical energy during upward heat-convection in the atmosphere" (PDF). Applied Energy 62 (4): 241251. doi:10.1016/S0306-2619(99)00013-6. http://vortexengine.ca/VPS/VorPro.pdf.
^ Michaud LM (2005) "Atmospheric Vortex Engine"PDF(198KiB)
^ News in Science - Fake tornado gives energy new twist - 09/11/2005
^ Bill Christensen "Vortex Engine - Tame Tornadoes May Generate Power"
External links
Atmospheric Vortex Engine: more details
http://quanthomme.free.fr/energieencore/carnet14.htm ( In French, for automatic English translation Google "Edgard Nazare")
http://vortexengine.ca (Index: "Endorsements", Powerpoint presentation by D Cooper CPEng.)
http://cdurable.info/Tour-solaire-a-vortex-maitriser-la,547.html (In French, for automatic English translation Google "Tour solaire a vortex")
http://evgars.com/ (English,Russian some ideas about Schauberger's inventories)
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Hallstein Commission


The Hallstein Commission is the European Commission that held office from January 7, 1958 to 20 June 1967. Its President was Walter Hallstein and held two separate mandates.
Contents
1 Work
2 Agricultural proposals
3 Empty chair crisis
4 First college
5 Second college
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
//
Work
European Union
Pre-1945
19451957
ECSC'50 - '51 - '52 - '53'54 - '55 - '56 - '57Treaty of Paris
19581972
EEC - EuratomHallstein Commission'58 - '59 - '60 - '61 - '62'63 - '64 - '65 - '66 - '67Rey Commission'67 - '68 - '69 - '70Malfatti Commission'70 - '71 - '72Mansholt Commission'72 - '73Treaty of Rome - SEA
19731993
Ortoli Commission'73 - '74 - '75 - '76 - '77Jenkins Commission'77 - '78 - '79 - '80 - '81Thorn Commission'81 - '82 - '83 - '84 - '85Delors Commission'85 - '86 - '87 - '88'89 - '90 - '91 - '92 - '93Treaty of Maastricht
19932004
European UnionDelors Commission'93 - '94Santer Commission'94 - '95 - '96'97 - '98 - '99Prodi Commission'99 - '00 - '01 - '02'03 - '04Treaty of AmsterdamTreaty of Nice
2004resent
Barroso Commission'04 - '05 - '06 - '07'08 - '09
See also
History of EuropeEnlargement - TreatiesTimeline - Presidency
v?d?e
It was the first Commission on the European Economic Community and held its first formal meeting on 16 January 1958 at the Castle of the Valley of the Duchess. It was succeeded by the Rey Commission. It served two terms and had 9 members (two each from France, Italy and Germany, one each from Luxembourg, Belgium and the Netherlands). It began work on the European single market and the Common Agricultural Policy. The Commission enjoyed a number of successes, such as the cereal prices accord which it managed to achieve in the wake of de Gaulle's veto of Britain's membership. De Gaulle was a major opponent to the Commission, and proposals such as the cereal prices accord were designed to bind France closer to the EEC to make it harder to break it up. Its work gained it esteem and prestige not only from the member states, but from outside the Community when the Commission made its debut at a Kennedy Round.
Agricultural proposals
In 1965 President Hallstein put forward the Commissions proposals for financing the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP). The proposals would have allowed the Community to develop its own financial resources, independently of the states, and given more budgetary powers to Parliament. Furthermore though, it applied the majority voting into the Council, which the French government stated it could not agree to. Hallstein knew of the risky nature of the proposals and was unusually active in drafting them (they would normally have been drafted by the Agriculture Commissioner). The tone of internal deliberations at the time also show the institution was aware of what they would cause and some Commissioners (notably both the French Commissioners) were opposing the plans. However they were also seen as vital for the Commission's long term goals.
The legislation would increase not only the Commission's powers, but also the Parliament's in an attempt to build a supranational structure and be rid of the power of veto. Because of this President Hallstein won support from the Parliament who had long been campaigning for more powers. Indeed Hallstein played to the Parliament by presenting his policy to the Parliament on 24 March, a week before he presented them to the Council. By this he associated himself with the Parliament's cause and demonstrated how he thought the Community ought to be run, in the hopes of generating a wave of pro-Europeanism big enough to get past the objections of member states. However in this it proved that, despite its past successes, Hallstein was overconfident in his risky proposals. When Hallstein put forward his proposals, the Council was already troubled. Then-French President, Charles de Gaulle, was sceptical of the rising supranational power of the Commission and accused Hallstein of acting as if he were a head of state. France was particularly concerned about protecting the CAP as it was only accepted by the other states after difficult negotiations and under a majority system it may be challenged by the other members.
Empty chair crisis

The Commission was blamed for the empty chair crisis
This, and similar differences between France and the Commission, were exacerbated when France took on the Presidency, thereby losing the normal system of mediation. Furthermore the Commission became marginalised as the debate became one between France and the other members, making the Council the centre of debate. Thus any chance of using the expertise of the Commission to come up with proposals was lost. Finally on the 30th of June, 1965 Paris recalled its representative in Brussels stating it would not take its seat in the Council until it had its way. This "empty chair crisis" was the first time that the operation of the EEC had failed because of a member state and it exposed failures in the Council's workings.
Paris continued its policy for six months until the impact upon its economy forced it back into negotiations. Meetings were held in Luxembourg during January 1966 where an agreement was reached. Under the "Luxembourg compromise" a member could veto a decision that it believed would affect its national interests - but it did not detail what kind of national interests or how to resolve a dispute. However since then it had been used so often it became a veto making unanimity in the Council the norm and was removed under the Single European Act. After the crisis, the commission became a scapegoat for the Council, with Hallstein being the only person to lose his job over what happened when the Council refused to renew his term, despite being the most 'dynamic' leader until Jacques Delors.
First college
The first college served from 1958-01-01 to 1962-01-09.
Political leanings: left leading - centrist - right leaning - unknown
Portfolio(s)
Commissioner
State
Party
President
Walter Hallstein
West Germany
CDU
Vice-President;Agriculture
Sicco Mansholt
Netherlands
CDA
Vice-President;Economics and Finance
Robert Marjolin
France
independentlater: SFIO
Vice-President;Internal Market
Piero MalvestitiServed until 1959-09-15
Italy
DC
Internal Market
Giuseppe CaronServed from 1959-11-24
Italy
DC
Overseas Development
Robert Marjolin
France
independent
External Relations
Jean Rey
Belgium
PRL
Competition
Hans von der Groeben
West Germany
independent
Social Affairs
Giuseppe PetrilliServed until 1961-02-08
Italy
independent
Social Affairs
Lionello Levi SandriServed from 1961-02-08
Italy
PSI
Transport
Michel RasquinServed until 1958-04-27
Luxembourg
LSAP
Transport
Lambert SchausServed from 1958-06-18
Luxembourg
CSV
Second college
The second college served from 1962-01-09 to 1967-06-30.
Political leanings: left leading - centrist - [4/3]right leaning - [1/2]unknown
Portfolio(s)
Commissioner
State
Party
President
Walter Hallstein
West Germany
CDU
Vice-President;Agriculture
Sicco Mansholt
Netherlands
PvdA
Vice-President;Economics and Finance
Robert Marjolin
France
independentlater: SFIO
Vice-President;Internal Market
Giuseppe CaronServed until 1963-05-15
Italy
DC
Internal Market
Guido Colonna di PalianoServed from 1964-07-30
Italy
unknown
Overseas Development
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Grabs (skateboarding)



Grabs in skateboarding are different ways to hold the skateboard during an aerial trick. Grabs usually combine aerials with rotation as the skateboarder grabs and holds the board.
Grab tricks
This is an incomplete list, which may never be able to satisfy certain standards for completeness. You can help by expanding it with sourced additions.
Airwalk grab
The skateboarder grabs the nose of the skateboard and kick the front foot in front of the board and the back foot back of the board, resulting in a split kick while holding the nose. Good skateboarders can kick it the other way while in the same aerial and make a walking motion. This trick was invented in 1983 by Tony Hawk, who performed it on ramps and half-pipes. In 1986, Rodney Mullen invented the Ollie Airwalk, a flatground version of the Airwalk. The name Ollie Airwalk is often mistaken by the Ollie Airwalk trick in Tony Hawk's Pro Skater games series. In the version in the game, the skateboarder only kicks his/her legs off the board and doesn't grab the nose. This is not considered a "real" airwalk.
Backside grab
Any grab with the either hand on the back rail of the board between the heels. Variations include: Melon, Method, Mosquito.
Benihana grab
A grab where your legs are split with one leg stretched out across the board while the hand opposite the leg holds the tail of the board.
Cannonball grab
The skateboarder ollies, then grabs both ends of the board (nose and tail) and holds them. This makes the skater crouch and appear small and round in shape, like a cannonball, hence the name. This trick can also be done as an early grab, in which case it is commonly called a smallie, a smurf, or a bunnyhop.
Christ Air
:An air trick made popular by Christian Hosoi where the skater grabs the board out from under their feet and forms a "T" shape with their body as if on a cross with the board outstreched in either hand.
Crail Grab
:For a Crail Grab, the skater grabs the toeside nose with the back hand brought in front of the body.
Del-Mar Indy
Created in the city of Del-Mar, CA its essentially an indy but you tweak your body to the side (either) and you endup with your legs behind you most of the time.
Double Grab
The board is grabbed with one hand on the frontside of the board and the other hand on the backside of the board.
Early grab
Any trick where the rider grabs before the coping or lip. Tricks such as indy's and bonelesses, etc... are common early grabs. Early grabs waste a lot of speed and inertia because of compression and squatting down prematurely, as opposed to "spracking" an ollie or "Bonking" off the coping. A later grab generally has more height and is more extended, therefore early grabs are considered to be obsolete, with a few notable exceptions. see ariels.
Frigid Air
Similar to a Judo, though the front foot is kicked out on the heel side, rather than the toe side, rail. Though the trick has been done on vert, it was most common during the mid '80s jump ramp craze.
Frontside Air Double Grab
A frontside air to slob.
Frontside grab
Any air where the board is grabbed with the either hand between the toes on the front rail of the board - hence "front" side. Style dictates that the inside of the elbow of the back arm must be wrapped around the knee of the back leg for a "tuck-knee" frontside. The other variation being where the arm is not around the back knee, but rather straight between the legs. This is known as a Stinkbug air or Bob air (supposedly named after Bob Schmeltzer of Back to the Future fame). The frontside air was the first air performed on vert. Although contested as to who did the first fronside air, credit is generally given to Tony Alva.
Indy grab
An Indy grab is a simple grab in which the rider uses their back hand to grab the toe side of the board while turning backside in the air.
Japan grab
With the front hand grabbing toeside between the heels, the legs are then bent and folded to the back of the board. Named after the Tony Hawk penned Transworld Skateboarding Magazine article in which it first appeared.
Judo Air
The board is grabbed with the front hand on the heel side of the nose. Then the front foot is kicked forward off the board.
Lein grab
Turning frontside grabbing the board by the nose in front of the front foot.
Madonna grab
Originally known as the Madonna Lien to Tail, it originated as a Lien to Tail where the front foot is kicked out behind the skater. Invented by Jesse "the Mess" Martinez" at Hosoi's ramp, It may have been simultaneously invented by Tony Hawk who got the credit for it because he was more famous at the time.
Melon Grab
backside air and you grab heelside with your front hand by reaching behind your front leg (reaching between is a Grosman grab)
Method-air
Contrary to popular belief, this grab did not originate from snowboarding, but was invented by Neil Blender as a "method" to get higher on a backside air. When the board is grabbed the knees are bent so the board is raised backwards and the skater appears to be kneeling in mid-air.
Mute-Air
A backside air where the leading hand grabs between the toes.
No foot-air
you grab your board and virtually do a one handed superman pose, similar to a trailing haded christ air, without the rigid body positioning.
Nose grab
For a nose grab one grabs hold of the board with the front hand. This is one of the easiest grabs to perform.
Nuclear
:Similar to a Crail grab, where you grab the heelside of the nose with the trailing hand.
Roast Beef
A frontside air where the trailing hand reaches between the legs to grab the heel edge of the board. Invented by Jeff Grosso.
Rocket Air
Similar to a nose grab. Except both hands grab the nose, and both feet move to the tail.
Sean Penn
A backside Madonna, or a frigid air to tail. Possibly invented by Mark "Gator" Rogowski.
Seatbelt grab
In this grab the front hand is brought across the front of the body to grab the toeside tail of the board. Invented by Remy Stratton.
Slob Air
A frontside air where the lead hand grabs between the toes.
Stalefish grab
Named by Tony Hawk, in honour of the quality of food at the Swedish Skate Camp where it was invented (although this is disputed, as many credit Mark Gonzales with inventing the grab). The back hand grabs the heel side of the board behind the back leg. This results in a bending of both legs which can be emphasised to create more style. When this is done on a trick it is called a 'tweak'.
Superman grab
The board is grabbed on both sides (one hand each) and is brought in front or above the skater's body. Named after the pose that Superman does when flying.
Tai-pan grab
A tai-pan grab is where the skateborder takes his/her front hand and wraps it around their leg from behind so they grab the toe side of the board.
Tail grab
A tail grab is where the back hand grabs the tail of the board. This is a deceptivly difficult grab to learn.
Tuck Knee
A tuck Knee is a grab consisting of putting you're knees on the board with the soles of you're shoes facing towards the tail, and bending you're legs backwards while one hand grabs the side of the skateboard.
Categories: Skateboarding tricks
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